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137

Fig. 15-3. Shrinkage (worm-hole cavities) in a (high heat conductive) copper casting

136

Fig. 15-2. Radiograph of an aluminium precision casting. Exposure on D2 film at 75 kV/5 mA/3.5 min/film-focus distance 100 cm

1 2 ... 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 ... 113 114

Industrial Radiography 1
Image forming techniques 2
“Industrial Radiography” 3
Contents 4
Basic properties 11
2.2 X-rays 12
2.3 Gamma-rays ( 12
2.5 Radiation energy-hardness 13
2.7 Penetrating power 14
2.8 Filtering (hardening) 15
2.9 Half-value thickness 15
3.2 Definitions 17
Radiation sources 18
Effective focal spot size 19
NDT equipment 21
5.2 High voltage generators 22
5.3 Megavolt equipment 23
5.4 Radioactive sources 24
6.1 Radiation images 27
6.2 Radiation filters 28
6.3 Intensifying screens 28
Steel and copper screens 29
Fluorescent screens 29
Fluorescent salt screens 29
Fluorometallic screens 29
(3.7-2.8) 30
The X-ray film 31
Developing the latent image 32
Density (optical) 32
Contrast 32
Gradient of the density curve 33
Average gradient 33
7.5 Film speed (sensitivity) 34
7.6 Graininess 34
Film types 35
Filmtype 36
8.2 Film type selection 37
8.3 Film sizes 37
Exposure chart 38
Fig. 1-9. Step wedge 39
Preliminary charts 40
FFD = focus-to-film distance 41
9.6 Relative exposure factors 42
9.7 Absolute exposure times 42
Method and answer 43
Example 2: 43
Processing and 44
10.4 Silver recovery 47
Defect discernibility 50
Inherent unsharpness 51
Total unsharpness 52
Selection of gamma source 53
Inverse square law 53
150 kV 80 kV 54
12.2 Useful film length 56
Image quality 57
Batch numberBatch number 58
13.3 List of common IQI’s 59
13.4 Position of the IQI 60
13.5 IQI sensitivity values 60
Film exposure 61
Film interpretation 63
15.2 The film-interpreter 64
15.3 Reference radiographs 64
Casting radiography 69
Digital Radiography (DR) 74
16.2 Digital image formation 75
Two-step digital radiography 76
The CR imaging plate 76
Image development 76
Scanners-Readers 76
CR cassettes 77
16.5.1 Detector types 78
16.5.2 Fill Factor 79
Limitations 80
Amorphous silicon flat panels 80
16.6.1 Exposure energy 81
Exposure parameters 82
Image quality definitions 82
Bit depth 83
Lateral resolution 84
Development of standards 84
Status of CR standards 85
Status of DR standards 85
Impact of standards 85
Standards for weld inspection 85
Corrosion detection 86
Weld inspection 86
16.12 Work station 87
Grey levels 88
1 Steel 3,5 3,5 89
2 3,5 1,3 89
Special 90
Tube heads 91
Magnification factors 91
System set-up 92
Effect of focal dimensions 92
17.3 Computer Tomography (CT) 94
Effect of defect orientation 95
Reverse engineering 95
CT metrology 95
Film Film 100
18.7 Flash radiography 102
19.2 Responsibilities 105
Fig. 2-19. Pendosis meter 107
19.7 Dose registration 108
19.8 Radiation shielding 108
European norms (EN-standards) 109
Literature and references 110
Acknowledgements 110
Appendices: tables and graphs 110
= minimum distance 111
Relative dose 112
Relative image quality DQE 112

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